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*This author wrote this paper as a senior thesis under the direction of Dr. Vivian Ta-Johnson.

Introduction 

Previous studies have sought to examine the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles (Miller et al., 2010; Reis et al., 2021). However, these studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding the association between different subtypes of narcissism (i.e., grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism) and attachment styles (i.e., attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance). These conflicting results could be due to the known age- and gender-related differences in narcissism (Weidmann et al., 2023) and attachment styles (Smolewska & Dion, 2005). However, previous studies have not accounted for age and gender differences when assessing the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles. Additionally, while attachment styles are also influenced by parenting styles (Millings et al., 2013), no study has explored the potential mediating role of parenting style on the link between narcissism and attachment style. As such, it is not clear how gender, age, and parenting styles play a role in the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles. The goal of the current study is to address these gaps in the existing literature. Doing so would provide a comprehensive understanding of how narcissism, attachment styles, and parenting styles intersect in shaping individuals' relational dynamics. Specifically, this study will investigate the link between narcissism and attachment style while also examining the moderating effects of age and gender on this link. Furthermore, this study will explore the mediating role of parenting style on the relationship between narcissism and attachment style to investigate the mechanisms underlying these complex associations.  

Background Literature 

Narcissism  

The emergence of narcissism as a character trait was initially defined by Wälder (1995) who portrayed individuals possessing the trait as those who have a sense of superiority, are condescending, fixated on the self, have a profound need for admiration, and lack empathy. He noted that these defining characteristics seemed notably pronounced in intimate contexts such that individuals with these traits tended to perceive relationships primarily as a way to gain physical gratification rather than to foster emotional bonds (Wälder, 1995).  

Presently, pathological narcissism is classified as a personality disorder. According to the DSM-V (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), in order to be diagnosed with Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), an individual must exhibit significant self-function impairments by excessively relying on others to define their identity and self-direction, and having the need to view oneself as exceptional. Failure to do so would result in emotional dysregulation. Additionally, these individuals must display impairments in interpersonal functioning with difficulties in recognizing the feelings and needs of others. Moreover, these individuals perceive relationships as superficial and self-serving, and tend to believe that others' actions are deliberately aimed at impacting them personally. Antagonistic personality traits such as grandiose feelings of entitlement and attention-seeking behaviors are common for people diagnosed with NPD. Impairments in personality functioning and trait expression persist consistently across time and situations, are not attributable to normal development or cultural influences, nor solely caused by substance use or medical conditions (Schemeck et al., 2013). 

However, scholars have indicated that relying solely on the criteria provided in the DSM-V to diagnose NPD is problematic (Cain et al., 2008). Pincus (2011) argued that the existing criteria for a NPD diagnosis is narrow as there is a strong focus on the presence of grandiose narcissistic traits including arrogance, entitlement, and attention-seeking. This overlooks the emotional distress that people with narcissistic traits experience as it is often overshadowed by extraversion and grandiose-presenting behaviors. Therefore, experts have argued that narcissism should be delineated into two different subtypes: grandiose narcissism and vulnerable narcissism (Gabbard, 1989).  

The DSM-V criteria concentrates on the grandiose subtype of narcissism. Individuals scoring high on grandiose narcissism are described as overtly-presenting, lack insight into how their actions may impact others, and tend to boost their self-esteem through self-enhancement, denying weaknesses, demanding entitlement, and devaluing those who challenge them. These individuals tend to struggle to see the gap between their expectations and reality and often blame external factors in conflicts (Dickinson & Pincus, 2003). On the other hand, individuals scoring high on vulnerable narcissism exhibit traits such as hypersensitivity to criticism, inhibition, shame, and visible emotional distress (Cain et al., 2008). Vulnerable narcissism is known as “quietly grandiose” as it is connected to seeking external validation while being outwardly modest and avoidant of attention (Gabbard, 1989). Both subtypes of narcissism fluctuate between self-idealization and feelings of incompetence and differ on coping strategies and emotional displays (Russ et al., 2008).  

Age and gender have been identified as significant factors associated with narcissism (Weidmann et al., 2023). Research indicates that narcissism tends to decrease over the lifespan, with the highest levels observed during early adulthood (18-26 years; Wetzel et al., 2020). However, ongoing debates persist regarding whether this decline is generational or developmental due to limited longitudinal and cohort studies (Wilson & Sibley, 2011). While men generally report higher levels of narcissism than women (Grijalva et al., 2015), it is important to note that women are underrepresented in narcissism research which raises concerns about the validity of existing findings (Green et al., 2020). In the same vein, a fairly sizable amount of narcissism research focuses on grandiose narcissism which obscures the study and importance of vulnerable narcissism, thereby limiting our understanding of trait manifestations between men and women. For example, women score higher on traits such as neuroticism (emotional instability) which is associated with vulnerable narcissism (Pincus et al., 2009). It is also important to consider that gender differences in narcissism could change over time in response to changing social roles, particularly for women (Grijalva et al., 2015). As societal norms shift and women increasingly adopt traditionally masculine traits, such as heightened self-focus, the dynamics of narcissism and its expression across genders may undergo significant changes (Twenge et al., 2008). Understanding these dynamics is crucial for gaining insights into how gender and age shape narcissistic behaviors. 

Attachment Styles 

Attachment style is the emotional bond that people form with their primary caregiver in early childhood which later translates into how individuals approach relationships in adulthood (Bowlby, 1979). There have been ongoing debates about the best method to understand differences in attachment styles among individuals. Specifically, these debates center around whether attachment styles should be represented as a categorical measure or a dimensional measure (Bao et al., 2022). Fraley et al. (2015) found that the two-dimensional model of attachment style—which measures attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety as continuous measures—appears to provide the most consistent measure of attachment style across a variety of contexts including general attachment and attachment in specific situations such as romantic attachment, peer attachment, and parental attachment. Brennan et al. (1998) described attachment anxiety as manifesting through high efforts to seek proximity and protection, and accompanying fears of abandonment due to inconsistent responsiveness by one’s caregiver in early childhood. Attachment avoidance is characterized by the avoidance of intimacy and proximity due to insensitivity and rejection by one’s caregiver in early childhood. Low levels of both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance indicate a secure attachment, meaning that the individual’s needs were effectively met by their caregivers in early childhood.  

Research by Del Giudice (2008) explored gender differences in attachment, revealing that young boys tend to exhibit more attachment avoidance whereas girls tend to display more attachment anxiety within insecure attachment styles. However, contrasting studies (Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van Ijzendoorn, 2009) suggest that gender differences in attachment styles are not consistently observed across children or adults. Given these discrepancies, it is unclear how attachment styles differ across gender and further research is essential to clarify these patterns. 

Moreover, Zhang and Labouvie-Vief (2004) identified a correlation between age and attachment styles, noting that secure attachment and attachment avoidance tend to increase with age, while attachment anxiety tends to decrease. They attribute these changes to the evolving priorities of interpersonal relationships as people age, which emphasizes a reduced need for validation and increased value placed on relationships. Additionally, fluctuations in coping strategies and overall well-being contribute significantly to changes in attachment style over time, with higher well-being associated with an increase in secure attachment (Zhang & Labouvie-Vief, 2004). 

Narcissism and Attachment Styles in Relationships 

Both subtypes of narcissism manifest in relationships. Miller et al. (2010) argued that specific attachment styles are associated with different subtypes of narcissism. High levels of vulnerable narcissism have been linked with high levels of attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance, indicating difficulties with intimacy and a high sensitivity to rejection (Reis et al., 2021). However, previous studies have reported inconsistent findings regarding the link between grandiose narcissism and attachment styles. Miller et al. (2010) reported no relationship between grandiose narcissism and attachment avoidance and anxiety. Rohmann et al. (2012) reported a negative relationship between grandiose narcissism and attachment avoidance, and no relationship between grandiose narcissism and attachment anxiety. Although inconsistent, both studies suggest a link between higher levels of grandiose narcissism and a more secure attachment style given that low attachment anxiety and low attachment avoidance suggest a secure attachment (Brennan et al., 1998). Dickinson & Pincus (2003) suggested that these findings could be explained by the grandiose tendency to say positive things about themselves, which might result in the denial of interpersonal distress rather than truly experiencing a secure attachment. Despite age- and gender-related differences on the link between narcissism and attachment, no studies have tested the moderating effects of age and gender on this link. 

Parenting Styles 

Research indicates that adult attachment styles are not solely influenced by initial interactions with primary caregivers but can change over time and are also influenced in part by parenting styles (Donita & Maria, 2015). These styles, as described by Baumrind (1991), consist of four categories that vary across levels of demandingness and responsiveness: Authoritative parenting involves high levels of demandingness, high levels of responsiveness to a child's needs, and employing supportive rather than punitive disciplinary measures. Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high levels of demandingness and directiveness, low levels of support or responsiveness, and emphasizing obedience without explanation through strict rules. Permissive parents offer high levels of support and responsiveness but lack demandingness and often avoid confrontation and disciplinary action. Neglectful parents, on the other hand, exhibit neither demandingness nor responsiveness, lack structure in parenting, and neglect their responsibilities toward their children.  

Millings et al. (2012) reported an association between parenting styles and attachment. Their findings indicated that a secure attachment to a partner—along with responsive caregiving—was positively linked to authoritative parenting styles and negatively linked to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles. In their research, attachment avoidance and anxiety correlated with less responsive caregiving which led to lower levels of authoritative parenting and higher levels of authoritarian and permissive parenting. Their analysis indicated that the level of responsiveness to a romantic partner acts as a mediator. This explains how secure attachment relates to an authoritative parenting style and suggests that higher levels of responsiveness mediate this association. When it comes to the relationship between parenting styles and narcissism, researchers have found a link found between grandiose narcissism and a permissive parenting style of the participants’ caregivers, and between vulnerable narcissism and an authoritarian parenting style of the participants’ caregivers. However, the causal mechanism(s) of this relationship has not been established (Ewing, 2020).   

The Current Study 

The current study has 4 major goals. The first goal was to examine the link between narcissism (vulnerable, grandiose) and attachment styles (attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance). Although previous studies have indicated a positive link between vulnerable narcissism and attachment anxiety and avoidance, previous studies have also reported inconclusive findings pertaining to the link between grandiose narcissism and attachment (Miller et al., 2010; Rohmann et al., 2012). As such, the link between narcissism and attachment styles were re-examined in the current study. It was hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between vulnerable narcissism and attachment anxiety. Given the previous inconclusive results pertaining to grandiose narcissism and attachment, an exploratory approach was used to investigate the link between grandiose narcissism and attachment. 

The second goal of this study was to assess whether age moderated the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles. Previous studies assessing the link between narcissism and attachment styles did not incorporate age as a potential moderator. As mentioned earlier, age is negatively associated with narcissism such that narcissism levels decrease as individuals get older (Wilson and Sibley, 2011).  Age-related differences in narcissism could influence observed associations between narcissism and attachment styles. In other words, accounting for age allows for a more complete and accurate understanding of how narcissism interacts with attachment styles across different age groups. Given that narcissism levels are higher among younger (rather than older) individuals, it was hypothesized that age would moderate the relationship between vulnerable narcissism and attachment styles such that vulnerable narcissism would more strongly predict attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance among those who are younger but not for those who are older.  Again, given the previous inconclusive results pertaining to grandiose narcissism and attachment, an exploratory approach was used to investigate the moderating role of age on the link between grandiose narcissism and attachment styles.  

The third goal of this study was to assess how gender moderated the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles. As mentioned earlier, women are underrepresented in narcissism research (Green et al., 2020). This not only contributes to the underdeveloped understanding of how narcissism is expressed between men and women (Green et al., 2020) but also brings into question the external validity of previous results. Moreover, because previous research relied predominantly on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), which primarily assesses the grandiose subtype of narcissism, this may obscure full understanding of how narcissism is expressed across gender. This is an important limitation to address because it allows for a more inclusive examination of narcissism and its manifestations in more diverse populations. Existing literature suggests that men often exhibit higher levels of grandiose narcissism, whereas women may demonstrate a greater propensity towards vulnerability-related traits such as attachment anxiety (Grijalva et al., 2015; Pincus et al., 2009). However, these associations are subject to change over time in response to shifting social norms and gender roles (Twenge et al., 2008). As such I hypothesized that gender would moderate the relationship between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and attachment anxiety and avoidance. Given the inconsistent findings regarding gender differences in attachment and narcissism and drawing on previous research (Del Giudice, 2008; Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van Ijzendoorn, 2009; Grijalva et al., 2015; Green et al., 2020), this study took, an exploratory approach into the directionality of gender’s influence on the associations between narcissistic traits and attachment styles.  

Last, the fourth goal of the current study was to examine the mediating role of parenting style on the link between narcissism and attachment. Although previous evidence suggests that attachment styles are also partially influenced by parenting styles (Millings et al., 2013), no study has examined the mediating role of parenting styles on the link between narcissism types and attachment style. Parenting styles could mediate this relationship due to the significant influence parents have on shaping their children's psychological development (Sanders & Turner, 2018). Previous studies have indicated a link between vulnerable narcissism and an authoritarian parenting style, as well as a link between grandiose narcissism and a permissive parenting style (Ewing, 2020). 

The link between vulnerable narcissism and authoritarian parenting style suggests that individuals with vulnerable traits may seek structure and validation through strict rules and control (van Schie et al., 2020). Conversely, the association between grandiose narcissism and permissive parenting style indicates that individuals with grandiose traits may exploit indulgent parenting to satisfy their sense of entitlement and avoid accountability (van Schie et al., 2020). As such, it was hypothesized that parenting styles would mediate the relationship between narcissism and attachment styles, specifically parenting styles that are characterized by high levels of one dimension (e.g., demandingness) and low levels of the other dimension (e.g., responsiveness)—such as authoritarian and permissive parenting styles—as opposed to parenting styles that are characterized by high levels of both dimensions (i.e., authoritative) or low levels of both dimensions (i.e., neglectful). This assessment would identify the influence of both narcissism and parenting styles on adult attachment styles (Cramer, 2019).   

Overall, examining these hypotheses can inform future research and contribute to the broader discourse on the intersection of gender, narcissism, and attachment within psychological contexts. 

Note: Eukaryon is published by students at Lake Forest College, who are solely responsible for its content. The views expressed in Eukaryon do not necessarily reflect those of the College. Articles published within Eukaryon should not be cited in bibliographies. Material contained herein should be treated as personal communication and should be cited as such only with the consent of the author.